Zambia’s population is estimated at 18.9 million. The population is growing rapidly at an estimated population growth rate of 2.9% (in 2021). Rapid population growth is the country’s main driver of environmental change. Zambia’s population is primarily rural, with only 44.1% of the population living in urban areas. However, the urban population is rapidly growing at a rate higher than 4% [2].

After 15 years of significant socio-economic progress and achieving middle-income status in 2011, Zambia’s economic performance has stalled in recent years. Between 2000 and 2014, the annual real gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate averaged 6.8%. The GDP growth rate slowed to 3.1% per annum between 2015 and 2019, mainly attributed to falling copper prices and declines in agricultural output and hydro-electric power generation due to insufficient rains, and insufficient policy adjustment to these exogenous shocks. The COVID-19 pandemic further impacted the economy, which was already weakened by recent persistent droughts, falling copper prices and unsustainable fiscal policies [3]. 

The country is endowed with natural resources that contribute significantly to the national economy. Mining has been a key driver of the Zambian economy for many years. The Government, however, has continued to diversify the economy to focus on other key economic sectors such as agriculture, energy, transport, construction, manufacturing, and tourism [4]. Employment in the services sector increased from 26.9% in 2010 to 40.7% in 2021 [2]. Zambia’s agricultural sector is the socio-economic backbone of the rural population, with 60% being dependent on the sector as the main source of income and livelihood [4]. In 2021, agriculture contributed about 3.4% of GDP, while employing 48.5% of the total labour force [2].

About one sixth of the rural population depend heavily on forests and non-forest resources for their livelihood and forests contribute approximately 20% to rural household incomes. Both indirect and direct values of forests are estimated to make a GDP contribution of about 4.7% if well managed. However, unsustainable charcoal and fuel wood production and the unsustainable clearance of forest land for agriculture and settlement expansion has resulted in high rates of deforestation and increased greenhouse gas emissions [4]. Wood fuel, primarily in the form of charcoal, is Zambia’s main source of energy for households, accounting for 90% of domestic energy consumption. Charcoal production is estimated to be responsible for around 30% of the country’s deforestation [5].

Despite impressive growth rates and the country reaching low middle-income status, Zambia continues to struggle to translate its economic growth into poverty eradication and reduction of inequalities. Poverty is increasing in absolute and relative terms. 54.4% of the population is considered poor and 40.8% extremely poor. Poverty is primarily a rural phenomenon as 77% of the poor population live in rural areas [6]. Zambia positioned at 146 out of 189 countries and territories in UNDP’s 2019 Human Development Index (HDI), with a value of 0.584, placing Zambia in the medium human development category [7].

Zambia has 2,800 MW of installed electricity generation capacity, of which 85% is hydro based. National access to electricity is estimated at 31%, with 67% of the urban and just 4% of the rural population having access to power. The Government of Zambia (GoZ) has set the goal for universal electricity access for all Zambians by 2030 [8]. 

Zambia’s climate is highly variable and over the last few decades has experienced a series of climatic extremes, including droughts, seasonal floods and flash floods, extreme temperatures and dry spells, many of these with increased frequency, intensity and magnitude [9].