Despite the country’s limited surface area (27,834 km²), Burundi’s population is estimated at 12.6 million inhabitants (in 2022) [5]. Burundi’s population is young [6], with 65% of the population under the age of 25 years and 33% between the ages of 10 and 24 years old [7]. Burundi's demographic situation is marked by rapid population growth, averaging 2.4% per year. In 2016, the country had 11.2 million inhabitants, with an average population density of 392 inhabitants/km², but exceeding 500 inhabitants/km² in some provinces. This high population density causes excessive pressure on the country’s environment and natural resources [8].

In 2018, only about 13% of Burundi’s population lived in urban areas, making it the least urbanised country in the Horn, Eastern, and Central Africa (HECA) region. However, it is also among the countries with one of the fastest growing urban populations in the region, with an urbanisation rate of 5.7% (in 2018). The urban population is projected to increase by 22% to reach 4.5 million by 2040, and double by 2050. Of the urban population, about 58% live in unplanned areas [6]. The main cities are Bujumbura (economic capital), Muyinga, Ruyigi, Gitega (political capital) and Ngozi.

The Burundian economy is a low-income economy [9], dominated by two sectors, namely the services and agriculture sectors. The share of the Burundian industry remains low (with a contribution, in added value, of less than 20%) [8]. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, economic growth in Burundi was mostly driven by the services sector. From 2019, this trend changed, as the country’s economic growth became mainly driven by agriculture. The agricultural sector, mainly fed by rain, contributes around 30% of the country’s GDP, and employs about 90% of the labor force. This heavy dependence of the Burundian economy on rain-fed agriculture increases the country’s humanitarian, social, and macroeconomic vulnerabilities to rising temperatures and extreme weather shocks [10], [11]. 

Over the past seven years, the country has experienced a difficult economic situation which has resulted in fiscal deficit and balance of payments difficulties. Further, the shock linked to the COVID-19 pandemic interrupted the country’s economic recovery and intensified macroeconomic imbalances [9]. However, after a GDP contraction of 1% in 2020, the economy bounced back in 2021, with GDP growth of 2.2%, driven by agriculture and by investment in public infrastructure [12]. The inflation surge of 2020 due to the disruptions in global supply chains continued in 2021, with an inflation rate of 8.3%, up from 7.5% in 2020, driven by rising food prices [9], [12]. Global inflationary pressure intensified by the Russia–Ukraine conflict is expected to increase the inflation rate to 9.3% in 2022. But the rate is expected to decrease in 2023 to 8.3% [12].

With projected GDP growth rates of 3.6% in 2022 and 4.6% in 2023, Burundi’s economic outlook is favorable, owing to the continuing recovery of agriculture and public investment. However, this outlook could be undermined by low rainfall that decreases agricultural yields, by sociopolitical instability, and by new COVID-19 variants [12].

Episodes of political instability in Burundi have not helped the country to build the foundations for sustained economic growth and it is estimated that about 85% of Burundians live below the poverty line [7]. For the structural transformation of Burundi’s economy, a number of constraints have been identified and include, among others, low agricultural productivity, great vulnerability to external shocks, the electrical energy deficit, rapid population growth, lack of and poor quality transport infrastructure, weak human capital, and poor Information, Communication and Technology (ICT) infrastructure [13].

Burundi has recognized that achieving strong and competitive growth in its economy, will depend on the use of new innovative technologies and on ensuring the capacity to gain access to, and absorb these resources. Burundi’s Vision 2025 clearly states that the country intends to prioritise the promotion of new technologies. This effort will focus on reforming education at all levels. Pride of place will be given to science and technology in education curricula, with an emphasis on research, information and communication technologies, which are generally used as major catalysts for acquiring and adopting new advanced technologies. In order to facilitate access to certain technologies, training and research, collaboration with other countries in the subregion will be pursued [14]. In this regard, the National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation of Burundi was created.

Since independence from Belgium in 1962, Burundi has experienced successive violent conflicts. A series of military coups (July and November 1966, 1976, 1987) and episodes of ethnic violence have repeatedly impeded economic growth and increased the country’s poverty levels. The civil war, which started in 1993, claimed more than 300,000 lives and displaced over 1 million people [15], [16]. Following Burundi’s signature of the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement in 2000, the war officially ended with the election of Burundi’s first post-conflict president, Pierre Nkurunziza, in 2005 [16].

In 2005, Burundi entered a new era of participatory and inclusive politics: many of the security sector reforms outlined in the Arusha Agreement were implemented and largely effective and Burundians held a constitutional referendum and organized peaceful general elections. This democratic opening, and donors’ positive response, helped to create a certain degree of stability and robust economic growth. However, in spite of this important progress, the period from 2005 to 2010 also presented an emerging pattern of closing political space, human rights violations, and repression of the political opposition, press, and civil society organizations (CSOs) [16].

In 2015, President Nkurunziza’s decision to run for a widely-disputed third term, and his subsequent re-election, triggered a widespread political crisis. What started out as peaceful protests against President Nkurunziza’s third term turned into violent confrontations between law enforcement officials, protestors, and armed groups, and led to a failed coup attempt in May 2015. This political instability and violence resulted in the large-scale displacement of Burundians, both domestically and in neighboring countries, and worsened tensions in a country already afflicted with severe poverty, little access to education, and limited employment opportunities. In early 2016, the European Union (EU), one of Burundi’s most important development partners, imposed sanctions as a result of unsatisfactory consultations based on Article 96 of the Cotonou Agreement [16].

In August 2020, a new government was installed. In his inauguration speech, President Ndayishimiye highlighted “national unity and cohesion of the Burundian people, peace and social justice” as top priorities, marking positive prospects for the improvement of relations between the Government and its international partners. In June 2021, the EU, which had suspended direct budgetary support to Burundi since 2015, announced that it was preparing to lift sanctions and resume budgetary aid [16].