Solid waste management has been recognized as one of the main environmental problems in the Dominican Republic. Air pollution is becoming a significant issue in the Santo Domingo Metropolitan Area (Gran Santo Domingo), where 38% of the country’s population resides and much of the country’s economic activity is concentrated. Many of the country’s surface water bodies and shallow aquifers near and downstream of populated places are polluted by discharges of urban wastewater and agricultural and industrial effluents.
No system for monitoring solid waste generation and management is in place. Per capita generation of municipal solid waste has been estimated at 0.7–1.26 kg/inhabitant/day (as opposed to the average of 1.47 kg/person/day in OECD countries), depending on economic level and geographical location. Using these rates, present-day countrywide generation would then likely range between 7,374.9 and 13,275 tonnes/day, with the Santo Domingo Metropolitan Area (Gran Santo Domingo), being the largest generator. Organic materials are the main component (60%) of municipal solid waste. Being a sensitive issue, data on generation of non-municipal solid waste (waste from economic activities), particularly hazardous solid waste, are completely unavailable.
Municipal solid waste management is mostly limited to collection and final disposal. Household surveys show that the coverage of domestic solid waste collection services has improved considerably over the last decade. Local governments were able to collect domestic solid waste from only 66% of Dominican households in 2009-2010, with a large disparity between urban (82.6%) and rural (34.2%) areas. Service coverage had improved considerably by 2018 to 85.2% countrywide, but regional disparities remained (91.5% vs. 58.1% in urban vs. rural households). Unattended households disposed of their waste by burning (7.5%) or dumping them in the yard, vacant plots, or the street (3.5%), or in ravines, rivers, streams, or ditches nearby (3.7%). While only 2.0% of urban households used waste burning, 30.9% of rural households did so. Only 6.4% of urban households dumped their waste, but 11% of rural households did so.
Waste collected is, in principle, simply transported to final disposal sites. However, an unquantified fraction of valuable (metal, glass, used tires, etc.) or reusable (food residues) waste is — mostly informally — diverted upon collection or during transport. The majority of final disposal sites are just unregulated, open dumping sites. A total of 325 dumping sites were recorded in 2010, nationwide; over 350 are estimated to be currently (as of 2021) operating. The majority lack any control (impermeable lining, leachate collection, etc.) or management infrastructure, and are inadequately sited: 66% of them are located on land suitable for agricultural and livestock production, 17% in areas with shallow water table (< 50 m deep), 6% near (< 100 m) lakes or lagoons, 89% near (< 1,000 m) streams, ravines and rivers; 5% near (< 3 km) airports, and 30% are in flood-prone zones.
Thus, municipal solid waste management is deficient in all its stages and most existent dumping sites become the source of air, soil, and water pollution, release large amounts of GHG, and pose threats to public health [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8].
Air quality in the Santo Domingo Metropolitan Area is not monitored. A few occasional, short-term studies have found concentrations of particulate matter (PM2.5), SO2, and NO2 exceeding both international and national standards in some parts of the Santo Domingo Metropolitan Area. Estimates by the Ministry of the Environment show that, countrywide, the main air pollutants are carbon monoxide, organic gases, and particulate matter, especially PM10. Some 19,616 tonnes of PM10 are emitted every year, accounting for 34.8% of total pollutant emissions [1], [2], [9]
No nationwide water quality monitoring network is in place and data available are incomplete and outdated. The National Institute of Hydraulic Resources (INDHRI) occasionally measures water quality variables in the country’s major watersheds (Yaque del Norte, Ozama Isabela, Yaque del Sur, and Yuna) and aquifers in the southern part of the country. Measurements have revealed microbiological pollution by coliform bacteria in all or some of the sampling dates/sites of all the watersheds examined; low concentrations of dissolved oxygen (< 5mg/L, insufficient for supporting aquatic life) in some sampling dates/sites of the Yaque del Norte, Ozama Isabela, and Yaque del Sur watersheds; and low pH, high conductivity, and presence of heavy metals (iron and nickel) in some parts of the Yuna watershed. All the aquifers examined showed either the presence of fecal coliforms and other bacteria (e.g., enterococci, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas) or high concentrations of total coliforms (> 1,100 colonies/cm3) [1], [2], [10], [11], [12].
Pollution observed in these surface and ground water sources limits their use for human consumption, recreation, or other uses that involve primary contact, and might compromise the wellbeing of aquatic ecosystems.
The main drivers of solid waste management issues in the country appear to be population growth and changes in consumption patterns. These processes have greatly increased the generation — and polluting potential — of solid waste, far exceeding the existent management capacities, due to: the insufficient and inadequate — or lack of — infrastructure for collection, treatment, and final disposal; the limited resources available to municipal governments (the entities responsible for solid waste management), which constrains their waste management operations and capacity to make the necessary investments in adequate, sufficient infrastructure; and the lack of an integrated policy, regulatory, and institutional framework.
Several national and local-level regulations and standards on specific solid waste management matters were issued over the last 20 years. However, no comprehensive national policy, law, and regulations specifically devoted to municipal solid waste management were in place until recently. In addition, there is a multiplicity of actors, ranging from national ministries (environment, health, and public works), local governments, citizens organizations, NGOs, and international development agencies that participate, at various levels, in solid waste management activities, often without involving the Dominican government and no coordinating mechanism [1], [2], [3], [4], [7], [13].
Rapid population growth, plus the ensuing growth of the motor car fleet and increased use of fossil fuels, appear to be driving air quality issues in the Santo Domingo Metropolitan Area — and perhaps other major urban zones as well. Occasional, short-term studies have identified vehicle emissions, electricity generation, and open burn of solid waste as the main sources of the elevated concentrations of PM2.5 in the Santo Domingo Metropolitan Area. Estimates by the Ministry of the Environment indicate that mobile sources are responsible for over 70% of pollutant emissions countrywide, but particularly in urban zones. Fixed point sources, particularly electricity generation, account for the remaining 30%. Significant sources of particulate matter (PM10) are dust from unpaved roads, open burning of garbage, and agricultural tillage [1], [2].
Water pollution mostly comes from urban and industrial sources (discharges of domestic and industrial wastewater), as well as diffuse sources in rural areas (agrochemicals, sediments, and organic waste).
The use of pesticides and fertilizers in crop fields causes contamination of surface and groundwaters. Agricultural effluents, that is, water that drains from or runs off the surface of crop fields either during the rainy season or after irrigation, carries residues of agrochemicals (pesticides and fertilizers) that eventually reach rivers, lakes, or the ocean, or infiltrates into the ground contaminating aquifers.
Pollution by wastewater discharges is due to the extremely insufficient collection and treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater. Due to the lack of or insufficient capacity of sewerage networks and wastewater treatment plants, much of the wastewater generated in the country is discharged untreated into rivers, lakes, or the sea. The receiving water bodies thus acquire heavy loads of organic matter and become contaminated with various pollutants (human waste, microorganisms, chemicals, etc.). Particularly impacted are the Ozama, Haina, Yuna, and Yaque del Norte rivers. The Ozama river has been identified as the main polluting source of the Dominican coast, carrying large amounts of organic matter, grease, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and microorganisms. These issues can lead to serious public health problems, demonstrated by the cholera crisis of 2011 — imported from Haiti [1], [2], [7], [10], [11], [12].
Key policies and governance approach
The regulatory framework of solid waste management has been under development since 2000 and several regulations are in place nowadays. The 2000 General Act on Environment and Natural Resources [14] and the 2007 Act on the National District and Municipalities [15] designate municipalities as responsible for solid waste management, as per the germane regulations and standards issued by the ministries of environment and public health. The 2003 National Standard for the Integrated Management of Non-Hazardous Waste [16] sets general guidelines for the management of non-hazardous municipal solid waste and states the sanitary measures that must be met for their storage, collection, transport, and final disposal; it also makes provisions for the reduction, reuse, and recycling of waste. Regulations and standards on specific aspects of solid waste management have also been adopted, including regulations on the labelling, reporting, and transport of hazardous materials, and on the management of used oil, discarded tires, and hazardous chemicals and waste, as well as standards for the management of radioactive and biological wastes, among others.
What has been lacking is a comprehensive regulatory framework that articulates the various aspects and multiple actors involved in solid waste management. Two major steps recently taken to address this deficiency are the 2014 National Policy on Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management and the 2020 General Act for Integrated Waste Management and Co-Processing.
The 2014 National Policy on Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management [4] aims to achieve an integrated management of municipal solid waste that avoids or minimizes adverse impacts on public health, is environmentally sustainable, and socioeconomically viable. The policy identifies a comprehensive set of lines of action, from reducing solid waste generation, encouraging recovery and recycling, and defining technical and operational standards for managing municipal solid waste (including the regulation regarding final disposal), to the internalization of costs and financial mechanisms, etc.
The 2020 General Act for Integrated Waste Management and Co-Processing [17] sets the legal framework for integrated solid waste management (ISWM) and for regulating waste collection and transport systems, final disposal sites, transfer stations, collection centres, and recovery plants, in order to guarantee the people’s right to a healthy environment, protect public health, and reduce GHG generation. The law identifies the responsibilities and competences of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, and municipal and sectoral authorities, as well as the obligations of waste generators and service providers, and waste-use businesses. Importantly, the law defines a set of policy instruments for implementing ISWM in the country, such as the National System for ISWM, solid waste inventory, National Plan for ISWM, a National Program for the Remediation of Contaminated Sites, Municipal-level ISWM plans, a system of environmental information on waste, economic instruments for ISWM, programmes on extended responsibility of producers, importers, and retailers, and others. Some of these instruments are already under development (e.g., [18], [19]).
The policy and regulatory framework on air pollution is still incipient. The 2003 Environmental Standard on Air Quality [20] sets the maximum concentrations of contaminants that are allowable in order to protect the population’s health and imposes specific prohibitions such as the open burning of solid and liquid waste, or any fuel material. The 2017 Technical Regulation for Controlling Air Pollutants Emissions from Fixed Sources [21] sets the maximum levels of atmospheric emissions from fixed sources that are allowable in order to reduce air pollution. This regulation governs all fixed sources (i.e., industries, businesses, projects, services, and facilities) whose activities emit pollutants that adversely affect air quality. Regulatory instruments for implementing and enforcing compliance with these standards are still missing.
The National Institute of Hydraulic Resources (INDHRI, for its acronym in Spanish) is the government agency responsible for regulating the use of the country’s surface and ground waters and for watershed management and conservation. However, the policy and regulatory framework on water pollution is still incipient. Only a few regulations and standards for potable water and surface and coastal waters seem to be in place. Regulatory instruments for implementing and enforcing compliance with these standards are still missing. Two major steps taken to address this deficiency are as follows:
The 2010 National Hydrological Plan [11] provides a scheme for optimizing the use and management of national water resources, identifies priority actions and outlines an action plan to solve and prevent water quantity and quality issues, in order to achieve a rational and sustainable use of the country's water resources. The plan also delineates actions for the long-term development of the sector, identifies indicators and means to monitor its progress and revise its objectives if needed. An updated version of the Plan is currently being formulated and is expected to be completed by the end of 2021 [22].
The National Sanitation Strategy [7] was formulated and adopted in 2016 as a means to address the problems caused by unregulated wastewater discharges and solid waste dumping. The strategy addresses issues related to potable water, domestic and non-domestic wastewater, rainwater drainage, solid waste, sludges from wastewater treatment plants, and the operation of some hazardous waste generators such as slaughterhouses, hospitals, and others.
SUCCESSES AND REMAINING CHALLENGES
The lack of integrated policies and regulatory and institutional frameworks for solid waste management and air and water pollution seems to have played a key role in the development of the current situation. Efforts to fill these gaps have been made recently or are currently ongoing but these are still to be effectively implemented, which might be challenging.
The lack of comprehensive, systematic data on solid waste generation and management, and air and water quality would severely limit the enforcement of and overseeing compliance with regulations and standards, identification of critical zones, assignation of liabilities, and targeted application of corrective measures.
The institutions responsible for implementing and enforcing the existent and new regulations would have to also acquire the technical and material capacities to do so.
The large investments needed for the proper collection, treatment, recovery, and disposal of solid and hazardous waste might delay or hinder their implementation, given the limited resources and capacities of local governments. Action plans for improving air quality are still to be defined and these often include major, costly measures such as the use of improved fuels and motor vehicles and improving urban planning and transport systems. Addressing water pollution would involve large-scale, costly interventions to collect and treat the wastewater generated across the country, as well as promoting a more rational use of agrochemicals, and others.
Initiatives and Development Plans
A number of projects addressing solid waste management and water and sanitation issues are currently underway, several of them with support from international donors.
Key policy instruments for implementing the recent General Act for Integrated Waste Management and Co-Processing [17] are being constructed. The National Plan for ISWM is being formulated with support from the Japanese agency for international cooperation [18]. The National Programme for ISWM is being formulated and will be implemented through a public-private partnership during the 2022–2023 period [19].
An updated version of the National Hydrological Plan is currently under construction with support from the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation; the plan is to be completed by the end of 2021 [22].
A much-needed General Water Act that comprehensively regulates the use of the country’s water resources and preserve their availability and quality to provide water security and sustain the country’s sustainable development had been in the making for over 20 years. The latest draft of the General Act was finally approved by Senate in mid-2020 and it is hoped to be soon turned into law [23].
Goals and Ambitions
The fourth strategic axis of the National Development Strategy 2030 [24] envisions attaining a society with a culture of sustainable production and consumption, that manages risks and protects the environment and natural resources with equity and efficiency, and promotes adaptation to climate change. Its General Objective 4.1 aims for a sustainable environmental management; the General Objective 4.2 aims for an efficient risk management to minimize human and economic loss and environmental damages.
- Efforts to amend the lack of integrated policies and regulatory and institutional frameworks for solid waste management and air and water pollution have been recently made or are currently ongoing but these are still to be implemented. This might be challenging and would likely benefit from support from the international community.
- The lack of comprehensive, systematic data on solid waste generation and management, and air and water quality is a critical need that has to be amended early in the process. The institutions responsible for implementing and enforcing the existent and new regulations would have to acquire the technical and material capacities to do so. Financing the large investments needed for addressing solid waste management and air and water pollution might be challenging, given the limited resources and capacities of local governments.
[1] Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. 2021. Plan Estratégico Institucional 2021-2024.
[3] GIZ. 2018. Situación Actual de Gestión de Residuos en República Dominicana
[7] INAPA-FCAS 2016. Propuesta de Estrategia Nacional de Saneamiento.
[9] Gómez Pérez, A., Manzanillo, L. A. G., Vásquez Frías, J., & Quintana Pérez, C. E. (2014). Contaminación atmosférica en puntos seleccionados de la ciudad de Santo Domingo, República Dominicana. Ciencia y Sociedad, 39(3), 533-557. https://doi.org/10.22206/cys.2014.v39i3.pp533-557
[10] US Army Corps of Engineers. 2002. Water Resources Assessment of the Dominican Republic.
[11] Instituto Nacional de Recursos Hidráulicos. 2012. Plan Hidrológico Nacional.
[14] República Dominicana 2000. Ley General sobre Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales.
[15] El Congreso Nacional. 2007. Ley No. 176- 07 del Distrito Nacional y los Municipios
[18] JICA presenta plan para gestión integral de los residuos sólidos a nivel nacional.
[19] Gobierno anuncia programa de gestión de residuos sólidos.
[22] República Dominicana inicia un programa para elaborar el Plan Nacional de Recursos Hídricos
[23] Aprueban proyecto de ley de agua, la pieza que tiene más de 15 años en el Congreso